About decision-making in aviation with respect to the human factors, stress, and automation, you can read here:
1. The Human Factors
Under the term "human factors" our human weaknesses are subsumed due to which we make mistakes time and again even if we are highly educated and experienced. A well-known compilation of single human factors is the so-called "dirty dozen".
1.1. The Human Factors Are Studied Intensely and Multidisciplinarily in Aviation
The human factors do not only play a role in at least 70% of the errors made during the actual flights, but also in the same percentage of those made during aircraft maintenance and in air traffic control.
Therefore, the Federal Aviation Adminstration, FAA, for instance, works closely together with pilots, and technicians, civil engineers, but also air traffic controllers, in oder to enhance the safety at the respective workplace continuously, and, as a result, the overall safety of a flight. In addition, specialists in fields as varying as psychology, and industrial design, civil engineering, and technology, collaborate.
1.2. Aims of the Research and Implementation at the Workplace
It is the explicit aim of the activities to continually improve the understanding of the human factors and their influence, as well as of the human abilities and limitations. Using these insights, on the one hand, mechanisms are elaborated, which reduce the influence of the human factors. For example, the lack of teamwork alone is counteracted by many CRM principles.
On the other hand, the research findings are used to shape the workplaces of the pilots, aircraft technicians, and air traffic controllers in a way that the experts can work at them as comfortably and safely as possible.
If the pilots are seated well, can use all the knobs and switches easily, as well as read the values shown on varied gauges at a glance and unmistakably, they have their concentration and awareness at their disposal to solve their actual tasks.
2. ADM Minimises the Influence of the Human Factors
Providing various tools, which we will examine in a summarised manner below, ADM helps the pilots to make decisions, which reduce the influence of the human factors, but also that of risk behaviour.
2.1. Some ADM Tools
Single-Pilot Resource Management, SRM
SRM is relevant in the private aviation sector. Here, a single pilot often has to use all of the resources deftly. Amongst them are those on board and those outside of his or her aeroplane, such as air traffic control, or information on changes in the weather.
Furthermore, SRM comprises all ADM concepts, the management of tasks and risks, but also situational awareness. Taken together, SRM helps the pilots to gather information, analyse the facts and make the right decisions for their flight.
The "5 Ps": Pilot, Plan, Passengers, Plane, and Programming
The "5Ps" provide the pilots with the possibility to apply SRM in a practical and structured manner. For each P, there are opportunities and risks, which the pilots should evaluate one at a time at fixed points in time in order to make decisions.
As fixed points in time for the evaluation of all the "5Ps" the planning of the flight, the moment right before take-off, the middle of the flight, and the moment before the descend can be used. Even before they take off, pilots can determine, how much of the programming of their autopilot, amongst others, they will carry out before the flight and in phases with a low workload.
The "3 Ps": The "Perceive, Process, Perform Model"
Pilots apply this simple model as follows:
- Perceive: any circumstance before or during the flight is perceived deliberately with regard to the associated dangers and risks
- Process: the pilots analyse the situation and decide whether they have to take action and, in this case, how they will proceed
- Perform: the pilots perform the most suitable actions
The "3 Ps" are evaluated using the checklists which you already encountered in the previous article :
- Perceive: "PAVE": Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, External Pressures
- Process: "CARE“: Consequences, Alternatives, Reality, External Factors
- Perform: "TEAM“: Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, Mitigate
2.2. Specific Application of ADM to Individual Members of the "Dirty Dozen"
In addition, pilots can counteract some of the human factors with the help of the structured ADM components. We will look at the following examples:
- Distraction: The structures facilitating decision-making and the checklists help to stay concentrated. If one has been interrupted, one should go back three items in the concept or on the checklist when resuming work in order to make sure that one does not omit vital steps.
- Lack of resources: With the help of, for instance, "PAVE", also a lack of resources becomes evident. Now, the crew has to decide how it will proceed.
- Pressure: One part of the checklist "PAVE" is External Pressures. Hence, the team identifies, what factors cause pressure and how it is going to deal with them.
- Lack of assertiveness: Using "PAVE", "CARE", and "TEAM", pilots can voice concerns about individual aspects constructively and find a solution.
3. How Does ADM Help in Case of Stress?
Before we concern ourselves with how pilots use ADM when stressed, we will elucidate what types of stress exist and what stressors are of relevance in aviation.
3.1. Good and Bad Stress, Too Much and Too Little to Do
The so-called eustress is a healthy level of stress, which helps us to concentrate on a task and complete it in a disciplined manner. Distress, however, is a burdensome type of stress, which hinders us from working optimally. As the stress level increases, our performance is enhanced until a certain point is reached. If this point is exceeded, it declines rapidly.
All of us know how stressful it is to have too much to do and not not know how to perform all our tasks to the same degree of satisfaction. Rarely, we reflect on the fact that also too little to do stresses people. If we don´t have tasks to fulfill, or not enough with which we can occupy ourselves, we feel bored. We may become complacent and make mistakes when carrying out what little there is to do.
3.2. Stressors Come From the Environment or Are of Physical or Psychological Nature
Environmental Stressors
During a flight, there are particular stressors such as the intense solar radiation into the cockpit and the exposure to radiation at high altitudes. The airliner itsself causes further stessors with its vibrations and the noise of the enginges. The air in the cockpit and the cabin is extremely dry, and the oxygen concentration is reduced, corresponding to the level at more than 2000 metres above sea level.
Physical Stressors
These include a lack of fitness, sleep deprivation, and low blood glucose levels after missed meals. Sleep deprivation is a serious problem in aviation as the circadian rhythm is disturbed from time to time, and the flight crews need to sleep at unusual times. Regular work outs, the best possible sleeping habits, as well as bringing healthy snacks to work alleviate these stressors.
Psychological Stressors
As in all phases of life and with all human beings, mental stress also affects pilots. It can stem from the loss of a loved one, a divorce, and many other demanding situations. Sometimes, it is difficult to see, where and how one finds the best help in such a situation.
3.3. Now, ADM Is Applied
In addition to the above mentioned psychological stressors there are others which are caused by a high workload. Using anticipation, wise planning, as well as early preparation of tasks when the workload is low, pilots manage to stay ahead of the aircraft.
In order to make the best use of the resources within the team, as well as those inside and outside the airliner, pilots first need to recognise them. It is part of ADM training to teach pilots which resources they have at their disposal and how to employ them in a structured fashion to detect dangers and risks and make decisions accordingly.
In doing so, they have a guideline which helps them to keep the overview in a stressful situation and work purposefully instead of experiencing a loss of control which would cause them even more stress. Rather, they feel that they are able to manage the situation.
It is a vital principle in ADM to pause briefly and think before one rushes a decision, which then causes even more stress. Usually, one has the time for this short mental process within the team. Sometimes, it requires a few seconds only.
4. Using Automation Based on Wise Decisions
4.1. Aims and Risks of Automation (Selection)
Modern cockpits include multifunctional displays, GPS, as well as a fully integrated autopilot. Whereas the increasing automation in aviation was meant to reduce human errors and to provide pilots with more room for situational awareness, amongst others, it has become evident that automation has unexpected side effects.
These comprise degraded basic flying skills, especially with pilots who are mainly introduced to automation. In addition, some pilots rely too much on the electronic systems and, in doing so, compensate a lack of skills.
However, every computer can fail as can the autopilot. Then, all of a sudden, manual skills are in demand again and need to be employed seamlessly. Especially in unexpected situations, this can turn out to be a challenge.
4.2. The Skilful Use of Automation
First, the pilots need to be perfectly familiar with the individual systems aboard every type of aircraft they fly and know why they have to operate what and how. This needs to exceed the mere memorising of sequences in which certain knobs are to be pushed.
Via the onboard systems, virtually an avalanche of information is presented. This pertains to the weather en route, but also the area which will be crossed with its particular geography and possibly closed air spaces. Without a concrete plan as to when and how the information will be considered, pilots can easily lose their overview and use capacities which were originally reserved for other tasks.
As there are many degrees between manual and automated flying today, pilots need to decide actively, how much automation they want to use. For this, they need to know, what suits their situational awareness and solving tasks on the one hand and maintaining their flying skills on the other hand, best. It is the superordinate aim to ensure the maximal safety on the flight.
5. An Important and Highly Topical Issue in the Next Blog Article
In the article above, we have gotten a first glimpse of automation in aviation. In June, we will examine this highly topical item in detail. How is the pilots´ work changing? Where do the advantages and risks arise? At what tasks are humans better than machines? And what is the situation like in medicine?
Author: Eva-Maria Schottdorf
Date: May 24th, 2023
On my blog page , I have linked more blog articles for you.